English The Language
Chapter 12
There are numerous accounts of the English language. There are innumerable individual stories from the people. Yet even when we look for broad narrative themes, several dimensions compete for our attention. For example, there is the structural story of how the language's sounds, grammar, and vocabulary have evolved. There is the social story of the way language has come to serve a multiplicity of functions in society. There are literary and chronological stories, with a beginning, middle, and ending. We can begin with the waves of Anglo-Saxon invaders arriving at various locations and laying the foundations for later dialectal differences. The language diverged early in England and Scotland, then took another path in Britain, onto North America, and elsewhere in the world. The Anglo-Saxon corpus of poetry and prose, dating to around the seventh century, provides the earliest opportunity to examine linguistic evidence for English. Understanding the outlines and the characteristics of Old English texts, the sounds, spellings, grammar, and vocabulary. The Middle English period begins with the effects of the French invasion on the English language and concludes with the emergence of Standard English. That's one way of looking at the history of the English language.
Note: Also see Beowulf and The Canterbury Tales!
The Early Modern English period begins with the English of Caxton, continues with that of Shakespeare and the King James Bible, and ends with the landmark publication of Johnson's Dictionary. According to the Anglo-Saxon historian Venerable Bede, the letter was written by Celtic people who had survived the ferocious invasions of the Scots and Picts in the early decades of the fifth century.
The barbarians drive us to the sea. The sea drives us back toward the barbarians. Between them, we are exposed to two sorts of death: we are either slain or drowned.
Although the Romans had previously assisted, they were now fully occupied by their wars with the Huns, Attila, and Bledla. Bede gives a succinct and sober account of what took place: 'In the year of our Lord 449...The nation of Angles, or Saxons, being invited by the king above, arrived in Britain with three longships, and had a place assigned them to reside in by the same, in the eastern part of the island, that they might thus appear to be fighting for their country whilst their real intentions were to enslave it...Bede describes the invaders as belonging to the three most powerful Germanic peoples: the Saxons, the Angles, and the Jutes. The first group to arrive came from Jutland, in the northern part of modern Denmark, and was led, according to the chroniclers, by two Jutish brothers, Hengist and Horsa. They landed at Ebbsfleet on the Isle of Thanet and settled in the areas now known as Kent, the Isle of Wight, and parts of Hampshire.
The Angles came from the south of the Danish peninsula and entered Britain much later, on the eastern coast, settling in parts of Mercia, Northumbria, and what is now East Anglia. The Saxons came from an area further south and west, along the coast of the North Sea, and from 477 settled in various parts of southern and southeastern Britain. The chroniclers discuss the distinctions among the East, West, and South Saxons, which are reflected in the later names of Essex, Wessex, and Sussex. The name Middlesex suggests that there were Middle Saxons as well.
English is a member of the Western branch of the Germanic language family. It is closest in structure to Frisian, though hardly anything is known about the ancient Frisians and their role in the invasions of Britain. The Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family is what British historians teach. Yet the Germanic branch derives from Celtic, Italic, Baltic-Slavic, Albanian, or from the upper half; the lower half derives from the Greeks, Anatolians, Armenians, Tocharian tribes, and the so-called Ido-Iranians. Therefore, Old English is associated with the regions where the invaders settled, but there are too few texts to make meaningful comparisons. The Germanic languages are not the German of today; Germans speak a language closer to East Gothic than to modern German, whereas English is closer to the Frisian languages.
Note: See The Manuscripts of Bede's Ecclesiastical History are in the Latin Language.
The Anglo-Saxon imposition of rule lasted for about a hundred years, and Anglo-Saxon settlements spread to all areas except the highlands of the West and the north. By the end of the fifth century, the foundations were laid for the emergence of the English language, with significant influence from other European languages, including Latin, the root of English.
With scant regard for priorities, the Germanic invaders called the native Celts "Weals" (foreigners), from which the name "Welsh" is derived. The Celts called the invaders Saxons, regardless of their tribal affiliation, and early Latin writers followed this practice. By the end of the sixth century, however, the term Angli (Angles) was in use as early as 601, a king of Kent, Ethelbert, is called rex Anglo-rum (King of the Angles), and during the seventh century Angli or Anglia (for the country) became the usual Latin names. Old English (Engle) derives from the term, and the language's name in Old English texts is, from the outset, referred to as English (the sc spelling representing the sound sh). References to the name of the country as England and of the Angles, from which came England, do not appear until circa (c.) about or around the time of 1000.
Venerable Bede, born at Monkton-on-Tyne in c. 673, worked as a writer and teacher; he died in 735 and was buried at Jarrow. His masterpiece, the Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation), was finished in 731. Its focus is the growth of Christianity in England, but its scope is broader, and it is recognized as the most valuable source for early English history. Written in Latin, and an Old English translation was made during the reign of Alfred the Great.
Before the Anglo-Saxon invasions, the language or languages spoken by the native inhabitants of the British Isles belonged to the Celtic family, introduced by a people who arrived in the islands around the middle of the first millennium BC. Many of these settlers were subsequently subjugated by the Romans, who arrived in 43 BC. After a millennium of settlement by speakers of Celtic and half a millennium by speakers of Latin, what effect did this have on the language spoken by the arriving Anglo-Saxons? There is, surprisingly, very little Celtic influence, or perhaps it is not so surprising, given the savage way in which the Celtic communities were destroyed or pushed back into the areas we now know as Cornwall, Wales, Cumbria, and the Scottish borders. Only a handful of Celtic words have survived into modern English.
Latin has been a significant influence on English throughout its history, and evidence of this influence appears from the earliest moments of the contract. The Anglo-Saxon tribes in continental Europe already used Latin words and were also introduced from within Britain. Vulgar Latin continued to be used, at least as an official language, for some years after the Roman army left. For some reason, about 200 Latin words are present in the English language at the very beginning of the Anglo-Saxon period.
Old English was first written in the runic alphabet. This alphabet was used in northern Europe, Scandinavia, present-day Germany, and the British Isles, and it has been preserved in about 4,000 inscriptions and a few manuscripts. The alphabet was developed by the Romans, who learned it from the Greeks, who in turn learned it from Asia Minor and Africa. The runic alphabet found throughout the area consisted of 24 letters. For the modern, magical sense of the rune, we are therefore indebted to the Scandinavian, not the Anglo-Saxon, tradition.
Note: See the Writings of Tolkien.
It is a considerable overstatement to suggest that St. Augustine brought Christianity to Britain. The religion had already arrived with the Roman invasion and, in the fourth century, had been granted official status in the Roman Empire. It was a Briton, St. Patrick, who converted Ireland in the early fifth century, and several early Welsh saints' names are remembered in place names beginning with Llan. See the Latin influence before the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons and in the earliest Old English manuscripts. The Literary age started only after the arrival of the Roman missionaries, led by Augustin, who came to Kent in AD 597. The earliest texts, dating to around 700, comprise glossaries of Latin words translated into Old English, as well as a few early inscriptions and poems. The standard Old English alphabet had the following 24 letters: a, ae, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, p, dt, u, w, y, it was very similar to the one still in use, though any modern eye looking at the original manuscripts would immediately see the absence of capital letters.
The history of early English vocabulary is one of repeated invasions, with newcomers to the islands bringing their languages with them and leaving a substantial portion of their vocabulary behind when they left or were assimilated. The focus on the next world came first, as Christian missionaries from Ireland and Rome introduced literacy and brought with them a large Latin vocabulary. The Anglo-Saxons had already encountered Latin, as used by the Roman armies on the Continent and by the Romano-British; many Vulgar-Latin words entered Old English as a result of this contact. The second major linguistic invasion resulted from the Viking raids on Britain, which began in AD 787 and continued for approximately 200 years. Most terms related to Danish law and culture died away after the Norman Conquest of 1066, which marks the beginning of a new social and linguistic era in Britain. It was a long time before the effects of the Norman invasion permeated the language; in the meantime, Old English continued to be used. A century later, texts were still being composed in the West Saxon variety that had developed in the years following King Alfred's reign. Middle English spans the period from the early 12th century to the mid-15th century. The gradual decay of Anglo-Saxon traditions and literary practices, overlapping with the sudden emergence of French and Latin literacy, gives much of this period an elusive and unfocused character. Chaucer is seen as a forerunner of Modern English poetry, and some would say the climax of Middle English.
The primary influence on English is, of course, France, strictly Norman-French, the language introduced to Britain by the invader. Following William of Normandy's accession, the French were rapidly established in the corridors of power. Within 20 years of the invasion, almost all the religious houses were under French-speaking superiors, and several new foundations were solely French. Most Anglo-Norman monarchs were unable to communicate in English, though some reportedly used it for swearing. Richard II addressed the people in English during the Peasants' Revolt of 1381. The first royal Will to be written in English was Henry's (1413). French continued to be used in Parliament, the courts, and public proceedings, but translations into English increased in frequency throughout the period, as did the number of handbooks written to teach French. In 1204, King John of England clashed with King Philip of France and had to give up control of Normandy. The English nobility lost their estates in France, and antagonism between the two countries intensified, leading to the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453). Then came the Barons' War from 1264 through 1265. English was not used in Parliament until 1362, and by 1425, it was widely used in England, both in writing and in speech. Middle English poetry is influenced by French literary traditions, both in content and style (See The Owl and the Nightingale). French influence also became increasingly evident in 13th-century English manuscripts.
French is the dominant influence on the growth of Middle English vocabulary, but it is not the only one. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, several thousand words entered the language directly from Latin via French, including terms from fields such as religion, medicine, law, and literature. The effects of the Scandinavian invasions were also felt during this period. The (Wycliffe Bible), authorship is attributed to John Wycliffe (1384). Because of the unorthodox nature of Wycliffe's opinions, the early manuscripts of his writings were widely destroyed. Wycliffe was concerned that laypeople should be able to read the Bible in their language. The first translation, based on St. Jerome's Latin version, was made between 1380 and 1384. Wycliffe's method was to rely significantly on glossing the Latin text, seeking, where possible, to preserve the original style. As a consequence, there are over a thousand Latin words whose use in English is first recorded in his translation.
Any extract demonstrates the influence of Latin vocabulary, either directly imported or mediated through French (E.g., the burning of John Wycliff's bones, 41 years after his death). The variety which we now call Standard English is the result of a combination of influences, the most important of which do not emerge until the period of Middle English. There is no direct connection between West Saxon, Old English, and modern standard English.
The political heart of the country moved from Winchester to London after the Conquest and the major linguistic trends during Middle English increasingly relate to the development of the capital as a social, political, and commercial center, the standard English began to emerge in the fifteenth century, following a detailed study of the dialect of that period, it is now possible to isolate several factors which contributed to its identity. Also, see William Caxton, 1476, the press in Westminster. The King James Bible, published in 1611, exerted an enormous influence on the development of the language and was influenced by several existing versions, all produced during the sixteenth century. The motivations for these bibles lay in the religious controversies of the day, such as but not limited to, Luther's protest at Wittenberg in 1517. About 80% of the text of the Authorized Version shows the influence of Tyndall, 1494 thru 1536, the chief sixteenth-century translations are, Miles Coverdale of 1535, Matthew's Bible of 1537, the Great Bible of 1539, for Protestant England, the Geneva Bible of 1560, produced by English Protestants in exile during the reign of Queen Mary, it was in roman type, the Bishops' Bible of 1568 and the Douai-Rheims Bible of 1609-10 issued by the Roman Catholic priests in exile in Europe. The Rheims New Testament first appeared in 1582, and the remaining text was produced from Douai in 1609, based on the Latin Vulgate. English Catholics used it for the next century. The period, from the time of Caxton until 1650, is called the Renaissance and includes the Reformation, the so-called discoveries of Copernicus, and the European exploration and colonization of Africa and the Americas. Most of the words that entered the language at this time are of Latin, Greek, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, North American, African, and Asian origin. The development of the language during the final decades of the Renaissance is reflected in the works of William Shakespeare (1564-1616) and the King James Bible (1611). By 1860, the American spelling system had become established.
Finally, we turn to the African American presence, which also had a substantial impact on English vocabulary through 1838. We observe that the vocabulary from 1960 to 1976 has an even greater influence on American English, as evidenced by the 120-lesson English C lesson one.